Discussions about gender are often adjacent to discussions that attempt to determine the intellectual capacities of either sex. Debates of this nature were generated in the late nineteenth century, when it was determined, with scientific vindication, that the challenges and complexities of academia were deemed too overwhelming for the female mind.
It supports the idea that the only factor of sexual differentiation that needs to be considered is the reproductive process. Therefore, sex differences are of vital importance to survival. Differentiation can unintentionally, and intentionally, cultivate a culture of discrimination. In categorising the differences between two subjects, one is automatically participating in a process of judgment. This judgment can manifest as a destructive bias or a positive comparison.
Sex difference has been biologically substantiated, and, in some cases, justified in the development of evolution. However, some argue that males and females are increasingly similar than different. For example, Epstein, in her book Deceptive Distinctions , maintains that distinctions based on gender identities serve more harm than good, and that attempts to divide the sexes based on intelligence present dysfunctional consequences for society.
Some scholars argue in the affirmative, that men and women exhibit asymmetrical cognitive capabilities. Across many social and academic spheres, the question of who is the smarter sex is deemed unanswerable. They may support the superiority of a particular sex, which in turn, is deliberately or intuitively reflected in their respective research.
They are thus influenced by universal social discourses such as race, gender, and class. Absolute scientific objectivity is a standard difficult to uphold.
As Gaitanidis states, the conditions, which produce gender identities, are not quasi-universal; sociocultural and historical forces intrude in our lives to shape our personal identities. Sex difference has been largely debunked, or at the very least, considered inconclusive.
The general consensus is that neither sex is psychologically superior. The emphasis is rather on the socialisation of difference, where the male and female gender constructs are influenced by worldviews, perceived norms and the unconscious. The variation of positions on sex difference indicates how pervasive the gender paradigm is, and how even purportedly objective areas of study, like science, can be skewed to perpetuate the idea of male intellectual dominance.
The revolutionary work of feminists and social constructivists over the past four decades has highlighted the impact and influence of gender constructs on sociocultural life and knowledge.
At this juncture, the essay needs to address this question. Debates about gender equality refer to the asymmetrical power balance experienced between men and women due to differences in their gendered identities.
This is a contemporary analysis of modern gender constructs and the relations between the sexes, yet the idea of gender equality has been a major international principle of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Some argue the term is a paradox; gender is a system based on difference, and thus could never transform into a state of equivalence.
This approach is much more constructive, as it recognises gender equality as a fluid concept that responds to the unique requirements of specific contexts. With this in mind, the essay will now discuss the relationship between masculinity and gender equality. Gender is an organising principle of social life, and change towards equality will require exceptional institutional and gender identity reform. In , women comprised only Masculinities and male stereotypes must be studied and deconstructed in order to effect change in how men relate to women.
Stereotypes, or gender profiles, play an important role in the discussion of gender equality. They attribute certain characteristics to whole segments of society with the intention of presenting perception as truth. The scale to which gender stereotypes impact society is articulated by Epstein who argues:.
Gender stereotypes are inherently political; they can be used as tools for manipulating power relations between men and women. They are naturalised within society through a process of reproduction and maintenance. Masculinities, as is the case with femininities for women, are socially constructed gender profiles under which men are categorised.
However, they are not created equal. It is a location within the male gender hierarchy that occupies the hegemonic, or top position. As such, hegemonic masculinity retains the dominant position of social life, while other masculinities, such as homosexual masculinity, [46] and women are subordinated. An example of how gender stereotypes are cultivated in society, and how hegemonic masculinity is highly valued, is in New Zealand where some schools are pressured to employ male teachers.
Men who exhibit the traits of traditional masculinity are considered to possess hegemonic masculinity. In order to aspire to this social classification, there is a particular set of core features that a man must demonstrate. Public and private engagement with gender equality is scarce among males, which often obscures the issue and manifests dismissive attitudes.
One of the main issues regarding gender equality is that men do not comprehensively understand how traditional masculinities disadvantage women. Many men are unaware they exist within socially constructed gender structures that disenfranchise subordinated gender profiles, and therefore do not recognise a problem.
Fortunately, attitudes, and the gender profiles they are associated with, are subject to social construction and transformation.
Christian argues that:. This claim of a singular, real masculinity has been roundly rejected since the late s by a new sociology of masculinity. Led by the sociologist Raewyn Connell, this school of thought presents gender as the product of relations and behaviors, rather than as a fixed set of identities and attributes. Connell and others theorized that common masculine ideals such as social respect, physical strength, and sexual potency become problematic when they set unattainable standards.
Falling short can make boys and men insecure and anxious, which might prompt them to use force in order to feel, and be seen as, dominant and in control. As this research was popularized, however, it was increasingly mischaracterized. Kupers told me that he believes critics of his study incorrectly assumed that he claimed masculinity itself is toxic, though he acknowledged that the article could have explained his position in greater detail. Since then, the return to toxic masculinity has leaked from academic literature to wide cultural circulation.
In some educational settings , these programs are becoming mandatory. Certainly, these programs can have a positive impact. Research consistently shows that boys and men who hold sexist attitudes are more likely to perpetrate gendered violence.
There are well-known gender patterns in violent and abusive behavior. The question is: Where do these sexist attitudes come from?
It organizes the public into nine distinct groups, based on an analysis of their attitudes and values. Even in a polarized era, the survey reveals deep divisions in both partisan coalitions. Use this tool to compare the groups on some key topics and their demographics. Pew Research Center now uses as the last birth year for Millennials in our work. President Michael Dimock explains why. About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world.
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